Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs) as recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Many shark species migrate out of national jurisdictions into the high seas, making international cooperation essential to effective shark conservation. International fisheries management is the responsibility of a network of Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs) with varying degrees of legal competence for setting limits on fishing for sharks (including rays).
A major first step in the process of regulating shark fishing in RFMO waters was a prohibition on shark finning (defined as slicing off a shark's fins and discarding the body at sea). Finning is now prohibited by most RFMOs, but problematic loopholes still exist (Fowler and Seret 2010). To close these loopholes, many RFMOs are undergoing changes to their finning regulations, from a fins-to-carcass ratio to mandating that sharks are landed with their fins naturally attached ("fins-attached"). These changes, however, have stalled for several RFMOs (some examples are outlined below). Additionally, it is important to note that a great number of countries party to these RFMOs have yet to regulate shark finning in their national waters, and implementation of the RFMO regulations varies among countries, limiting their effectiveness.
Detailed information on shark measures adopted by RFMOs is included in the report from the IUCN SSG Pelagic Shark Red List Workshop, The Conservation Status of Pelagic Sharks and Rays.
A major first step in the process of regulating shark fishing in RFMO waters was a prohibition on shark finning (defined as slicing off a shark's fins and discarding the body at sea). Finning is now prohibited by most RFMOs, but problematic loopholes still exist (Fowler and Seret 2010). To close these loopholes, many RFMOs are undergoing changes to their finning regulations, from a fins-to-carcass ratio to mandating that sharks are landed with their fins naturally attached ("fins-attached"). These changes, however, have stalled for several RFMOs (some examples are outlined below). Additionally, it is important to note that a great number of countries party to these RFMOs have yet to regulate shark finning in their national waters, and implementation of the RFMO regulations varies among countries, limiting their effectiveness.
Detailed information on shark measures adopted by RFMOs is included in the report from the IUCN SSG Pelagic Shark Red List Workshop, The Conservation Status of Pelagic Sharks and Rays.
International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)
Stock assessments of the Atlantic populations of the Shortfin Mako Shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) are produced for ICCAT. Photo: Andy Murch
In 2004, after several actions aimed at improving shark fisheries data, Parties to ICCAT agreed to a binding recommendation that amounted to the world’s first international regulation on shark finning (Recommendation 04-10, 2004). The Recommendation states that all ICCAT Contracting and Cooperating Parties or Fishing Entities shall require full utilization of sharks and limit shark fins onboard to 5% of the weight of sharks onboard. Countries are to also report shark catch data annually, encourage the release of live, unwanted, incidentally caught sharks and, where possible, facilitate research to identify shark nursery areas and ways to make fishing gears more selective.
The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics produced heavily caveated stock assessments of the Atlantic populations of Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), Shortfin Mako Shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), starting in 2004 and in 2009 added the Porbeagle Shark (Lamna nasus). In addition, ICCAT have conducted ecological risk assessments for additional shark and ray species taken in their fisheries. In 2010, the onboard retention, transshippment, landing, storing, selling, or offering for sale any part or whole carcass of the Oceanic Whitetip Shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae, except for Sphyrna tiburo), and the Bigeye Thresher Shark (Alopias superciliosus) was prohibited (Recommendation 10-07, 2010; Recommendation 10-08, 2010; and Recommendation 09-07, 2009).
Nonetheless, progress has stalled when it comes to reaching consensus on several shark conservation proposals. At the ICAAT annual meeting in 2015, proposals to establish catch limits for the Shortfin Mako, protect the Common Thresher Shark (Alopias vulpinus), and strengthen the current ICAAT shark finning regulation to align with "fins attached" policies, were defeated.
The ICCAT Standing Committee on Research and Statistics produced heavily caveated stock assessments of the Atlantic populations of Blue Shark (Prionace glauca), Shortfin Mako Shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), starting in 2004 and in 2009 added the Porbeagle Shark (Lamna nasus). In addition, ICCAT have conducted ecological risk assessments for additional shark and ray species taken in their fisheries. In 2010, the onboard retention, transshippment, landing, storing, selling, or offering for sale any part or whole carcass of the Oceanic Whitetip Shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae, except for Sphyrna tiburo), and the Bigeye Thresher Shark (Alopias superciliosus) was prohibited (Recommendation 10-07, 2010; Recommendation 10-08, 2010; and Recommendation 09-07, 2009).
Nonetheless, progress has stalled when it comes to reaching consensus on several shark conservation proposals. At the ICAAT annual meeting in 2015, proposals to establish catch limits for the Shortfin Mako, protect the Common Thresher Shark (Alopias vulpinus), and strengthen the current ICAAT shark finning regulation to align with "fins attached" policies, were defeated.
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC)
In 2005, IATTC Parties resolved to establish and implement national plan of action for the conservation and management of shark stocks (NPOA-SHARKS), provide preliminary information on stock status for key shark species, begin to work towards full utilization of any retained shark catches, enforce fin-to-body ratios of 5%, investigate gear modifications to reduce shark bycatch, and others (Resolution C-05-03, 2005). Annual reporting requirements by Parties include annual report data for shark catches and landings (to species where possible) and effort by gear type. In addition, species-specific data on the number of alive or dead discards and releases of Oceanic Whitetip Shark were required as of the 82nd Meeting of the Parties in 2011. These Oceanic Whitetip requirements went into force in January 2012, and prohibited onboard retention, transshipment, landing, storing, selling, or sale of part or whole carcasses of this species (Resolution C-11-10).
In 2015 the EU proposal to prohibit retention and mandate the safe release of devil and manta rays (mobulids) was adopted. This measure prohibits retention, transshipment, storage, landing, and sale of all mobulid rays taken in large-scale fisheries governed by the IATTC. It also includes requirements for reporting mobulid catch data and ensuring safe release (i.e. no gaffing, punching holes through ray bodies, or lifting of rays by slits or spiracles). Developing countries were granted exceptions for mobulids taken in small-scale fisheries for domestic consumption (Resolution C-15-04).
Progress on strengthening the IATTC shark finning regulations to move from fin-to-carcass weight ratios to prohibition on at-sea fin removals has stalled. Additionally, a US proposal on hammerhead shark management measures (Proposal IATTC-82-K-1) and a EU proposal on silky shark management measures (Proposal IATTC-89 A-3) were defeated.
In 2015 the EU proposal to prohibit retention and mandate the safe release of devil and manta rays (mobulids) was adopted. This measure prohibits retention, transshipment, storage, landing, and sale of all mobulid rays taken in large-scale fisheries governed by the IATTC. It also includes requirements for reporting mobulid catch data and ensuring safe release (i.e. no gaffing, punching holes through ray bodies, or lifting of rays by slits or spiracles). Developing countries were granted exceptions for mobulids taken in small-scale fisheries for domestic consumption (Resolution C-15-04).
Progress on strengthening the IATTC shark finning regulations to move from fin-to-carcass weight ratios to prohibition on at-sea fin removals has stalled. Additionally, a US proposal on hammerhead shark management measures (Proposal IATTC-82-K-1) and a EU proposal on silky shark management measures (Proposal IATTC-89 A-3) were defeated.
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO)
The Thorny Skate (Amblyraja radiata), managed under NAFO (photo: Andy Murch)
Shark finning has been regulated by NAFO since 2005, and shark catches must be fully utilized (all parts must be retained except the head, guts, and skins). Article 12 in the NAFO Conservation and Enforcement Measures details the Conservation and Management of sharks in NAFO waters. The current NAFO fin regulations, however, allows fins to be removed as long as fin-to-body ratios of comply to the 5% rule. In 2015, an effort to strengthen finning regulations by adopting "fins-attached" rules, was defeated.
NAFO adopted an international catch limit on the Thorny Skate (Amblyraja radiata) in 2004, based on a proposal from the United States (US). This species is managed through a total allowable catch (TAC) and quota system based on biennial stock assessments, however these quotas are often set at higher levels than what has been advised by scientists.
NAFO adopted an international catch limit on the Thorny Skate (Amblyraja radiata) in 2004, based on a proposal from the United States (US). This species is managed through a total allowable catch (TAC) and quota system based on biennial stock assessments, however these quotas are often set at higher levels than what has been advised by scientists.
Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
In 2006, based on a proposal from France, the Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) agreed to a prohibition on directed shark fishing, and the release of incidentally-caught sharks where possible (Convention Measure 32-18, 2006). In 2008, a measure was adopted to release fish and other organisms that have a high expectation of survival (Convention Measure 26-01, 2009). Bycatch quotas specific to skates and rays (not to exceed 120 tonnes) were put in to place in the 2012/2013 fishing season, and bycatch quotas for all other fish species including sharks (for which there was no catch limit specified) was not to exceed 50 tonnes (Convention Measure 33-02, 2012). In addition, release techniques for skates and rays obtained as bycatch with a high probability of survival were outlined - including that the hooks be removed and the number recorded and reported to the Secretariat (Convention Measure 33-03, 2012). A proposal brought forth by Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, EU, and the USA to amend Convention Measure 32-18 to include a prohibition on the finning of sharks was rejected at the 34th Meeting of the Commission from 19-30 October 2015.